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WONDERS OF TURKEY

Mother Goddess Statuette
Fired clay, first half of the 6th millenium B.C., height 20 cm, Çatalhöyük. (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations)

Yazılıkaya - Midas City - The Great Monument
Situated at 90 km. from Eskişehir, the Yazılıkaya - Midas City established during the 7th century B.C., is famous for its Great Monument which is an important masterpiece of the Pbrygian Period. The monument is covered with miscellaneous geometric designs and hyerogliphics. During the Pbrygian Period religious ceremonies used to be held here.

Lydia (Karun) Treasures
These consist of the pieces smuggled to the US Metropolitan Art Museum by smugglers who dug the Toptepe Timulus near the Gure-Uşak province in 1965, the İkiztepe Tumulus in 1966 and the Aktepe I Tumulus in 1968. These pieces of work are the best examples of the 6th century B.C. Lydian art. After a long period of legal negotiations carried out by the Ministry of Culture these were given back to Turkey in 1993. (Museum of Uşak)

Bergama Zeus Altar
Built during the years 197-159 B.C. by Eumenes II, King of Pergammon, it was revealed by German archaelogists during excavations made after 1865 in Pergammon and the remains were sent to Berlin. It was restored in the Berlin State Museum and was opened to exhibition in 1871. After that date, the museum acquired the name Pergammon Museum.

Bust of Alexander the Great
This marble bust 42 cm in height was found during the excavations at Pergammon and dates back to 3rd century B.C. of the original busts of Alexander the Great made during his lifetime, none have reached us today, we have only found reproductions. The bust found in Pergammon is famous, it being more realistic than the one in Louvre-Paris. (İstanbul Archaelogical Museum)

Aphrodisias
An antique city situated near the Karacasu-Aydın province, was established in the name of Goddess Aphrodite. It continued to be a great center of inhabitance from the Bronze Age to the Byzantine Period (2800 B.C. - 220 A.D.). During excavations, the Aphrodite Temple, Odeon, Statium and agora, and the city baths have been revealed. Aphrodisias was well known during the Early Age as a center of sculpture. The Aphrodisias Stadium is one of the best preserved stadiums among the antique city stadiums in Anatolia.

Ephesus Artemis Temple
This famous temple is one of the seven wonders of the world, and is also known as Artemission. It was first built in lonian style during 560-550 B.C. by the Lydian King Kroisos. After being burnt down in 356 B.C. by a lunatic, it was rebuilt on the same foundations, but its height was extended by 3 m. This temple, which is also famous for its marble statues, is 55.10 x 115 in dimensions and was the largest of all temple, which were discovered during digs by J.T. Wood in 1869-1874, and David G. Hogart in 1904-1905 in the name of the British Museum, were taken to England.

Sardes
Situated in Salihli - Manisa province, it is an antique city which served as capital to the Lydian State. Archaelogical digs since the 19th century have revealed important works such as the Artemis Temple, gymnasium, stadium, Roman and Byzantine baths. The picture shows a section of the gymnaisum.

Bodrum - Halicarnassos Mausoleum
The tomb of Persioan governor Maussolos ad Bodrum - Halicarnassos is one of the seven wonders of the world. Upon the death of Maussolos in 352 B.C., the mausoleum was built by his wife Artemisia. The architects were Pytheos and Satyrus. Famous sculptors such as Scopas, Timotheos, Bryaris and Leochares worked on each of the walls. It covers an area of 60 x 80 m. and is 46 m. in height. There exist 9 x 11 pillars. Some of the pieces have been used in the construction of the Bodrum Castle. Some of the pieces were taken during the 19th century to the British Museum.

Aspendos
This antique city established in the Early age is 48km east of Antalya. Its most important feature is its theatre. The theatre and its stage are the best preserved of the Roman theatres in anatolia which have reached our times. 15000 spectators can sit in the theatre. It was built during the reign of Emperor Antonius Pius (134 - 164) by architect Zenon.

Derinkuyu Underground City

Situated in the Derinkuyu Nevşehir province, this city was built as a defence and hiding site during the period of the spreading of Christianity. It was built by excavating the soft rocks underground, and is estimated to have been built during the 9th-10th centuries. It consists of rooms on either side of narrow passages, ventilation stacks, a chapel and a well.

Kaymaklı Underground City
The city is situated 15km to Nevşehir, in the Kaymaklı province. It was built during the 9^th - 10^th centuries during the period of the spreading of christianity, as a city of defence and hiding sites. The 8 floors of this underground city are built around a ventilation stack. The ceiling height of rooms on each floor, surrounding a ball, is 2m. the chapels are larger than the rooms and the ceilings are higher.

Ephesus Celcius Library

It is the most important remains of the Ephesus antique city in the Izmir Selcuk province. Built during the Roman Period in 115-117, it survived a fire in the year 260. It is famous for its striking architecture of its two-story facade. The three rows of recesses in the inner walls of the library were used to store rolls of script.

Fortresses, Castles

Istanbul City Walls
The first city walls of Istanbul were built during 413-477 by the Byzantine Emperor Thedosius II. They extend 6-7 km. starting from the Marble Tower on the Marmara shore up to the Golden Horn. The Yedikule Walls was built by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror in the years 1457-1458. These walls contain 16 gates. The walls have a three stage defence consisting of the inner walls, outer walls and a trench. The inner walls are 3-4m thick and 13m high. The outer walls 15m away, are 2m. thick and 10m. high. In front of the outer walls, there is a trench. The Istanbul city walls are being restored within the framework of the UNESCO protection program.

The Rumeli Fortress

It is situated on the Tracean side of the Istanbul Bosphorous. It was built by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror in 1452 to prevent aid from north reaching Byzantine. It took 4 months to build with 1000 masons and 2000 workers. The three towers were built by Çandarlı Halil Pasha, Saruca Pasha and Zaganos Pasha and are named after them. The fortress has 5 gates and lies over an area of 30.000 m².

Diyarbakır Castle and Fortress
The first sections of the castle is assumed to have been built by the Hurris. In 349 during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantinus II, walls were built round the city, and the Fortress was reinforced. It is made of basalte stones cut out. During the Artuklu, Akkoyunlu, Selçuk, Ottoman and Republican eras it was restored many times. It consist of two sections, the outer fortress and the inner castle. The outer fortress walls contain 82 bastions and are 5 km long and have four gates. The inner castle also has four gates and was surrounded by walls during the period of Sultan Süleyman the Great.

Van Castle
It was built within the capital of the Uratu State, Tushba during the 9th century B.C.. The castle fell into the bands of the Assyrians during the early 7th century B.C. when the Urartus were defeated and fled from the region. The castle also carries imprints of the Selçuk, Karakoyunlu, Akkoyunlu and the Ottoman eras. The most important sections in the castle are the rock cells and inscriptions belonging to the Urartus. The castle also contains a mosque built by Sultan Süleyman the Great.

Kızkalesi (Maiden's Castle)
Situated 60 km. to Mersin, in the Erdemli province, it is 800-1000 m. away from the remains of the Mediterranean Sea. Over the years, its tie to mainland has disappeared and it is now an Island. Corcyus, which was established during the 4th century B.C. by the Hellens, and expanded during the Roman and Byzantine Periods, was an important barbour during the 8th century. The castle was established to prevent attacks from the Sea. It contains remains of a church.

Hoşap Castle
Situated on the Van-Başkale highway, 60 km from Van, this castle was built during the 16th century by the Mahmudi Clan leader Süleyman Bey, It contains two mosques, three baths, fountains and prison cells

Palaces,

Dolmabahçe Palace

Until the 17^th century the area where Dolmabahçe Palace stands today was a small bay on the Bosphorus, claimed by some to be where the Argonauts anchored during their quest for the Golden Fleece, and where in 1453 Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror had his fleet hauled ashore and across the hills to be refloated in the Golden Horn.

This natural harbour provided anchorage for the Ottoman fleet and for traditional naval ceremonies. From the 17^th century the bay was gradually filled in and became one of the imperial parks on the Bosphourus known as Dolmabahçe, literally meaning “filled garden”.

A series of imperial köşks (mansions) and kasırs (pavilions) were built here, eventually growing into a palace complex known as Beşiktaş Waterfront Palace.

Beşiktaş Waterfront Palace was demolished in 1843 by Sultan Abdülmecid (1839-1861) on the grounds that it was made of wood and inconvenient, and construction of Dolmabahçe Palace commenced in its place.

Construction of the new palace and its periphery walls was completed in 1856. Dolmabahçe Palace had a total area of over 110.000 square metres and consisted of sixteen separate sections apart from the palace proper. These included stables, a flour mill, pharmacy, kitchens, aviary, glass manufactory and foundry. Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) added a clock tower and the Veliahd Dairesi (apartments for the heir apparent), and the Hareket Köşks in the gardens behind.

The main palace was built by the leading Ottoman architects of the era, Karabet and Nikoğos Balyan, and consists of three parts: the Imperial Mabeyn (State Apartments), Muayede Salon (Ceremonial Hall) and the Imperial Harem, where the sultan and his family led their private lives. The Ceremonial Hall placed centrally between the other two sections is where the sultan received statesman and dignitaries on state occasions and religious festivals.

The palace consists of two main storeys and a basement. The conspicuous western style of decoration tends to overshadow the decidedly Ottoman interpretation evident most of all in the interpretation evident most of all in the interior plan. This follows the traditional layout and relations between private rooms and central galleries of the Turkish house, implemented here on a large scale. The outer walls are made of stone, the interior walls are made of stone, the interior walls of brick, and the floors of wood. Modern technology in the form of electricity and a central heating system was introduced in 1910-12. The palace has a total floor area of 45.000 square metres, with 285 small rooms, 46 reception rooms and galleries, 6 hamams (Turkish baths) and 68 lavatories. The finely made parquet floors are laid with 4454 square metres of carpets, the earliest made at the palace carpet weaving mill and those of later date at the mill in Hereke.

The Mabeyn where the sultan conducted affairs of state is the most important section in terms of function and splendour. The entrance hall known as the Medhal Salon, the Crystal Staircase, and the Süfera Salon where foreign ambassadors were entertained prior to audience with the sultan in the Red Room are all decorated and furnished in a style reflecting the historical magnificence of the empire. The Zülvecheyn Salon on the upper floor serves as an entrance hall leading to the apartments reserved for the sultan in the Mabeyn. These apartments include a magnificent hamam faced with Egyptian marble, a study and drawing rooms.

The Ceremonial Hall situated between the Harem and the Mabeyn is the highest and most imposing section of Dolmabahçe Palace. With an area of over 2000 square metres, 56 columns, a dome 36 metres high at the apex, and a 4.5 ton English chandelier, this room stands out as the focal point of the palace. In cold weather this vast room was heated by hot air blown out at the bases of the columns from a heating system in the basement. On ceremonial occasions the gold throne would be carried here from Topkapı Palace, and seated here the sultan would exchange congratulations on religious festivals with hundreds of statesmen and other official guests. On such traditional occasions foreign ambassadors and guests would sit in one of the upper galleries, another being reserved for the palace orchestra.

The self-contained Harem occupies two thirds of the palace, corridors linking it to the Mabeyn and the Ceremonial Hall. Access to the Harem was by iron and wooden doors, through which only the sultan could pass freely. Here are a series of salons and galleries whose windows look out onto the Bosphorus, and leading off them the suites of rooms belonging to the sultan's wives, the high ranking female officials of the Harem, and the sons, brothers, daughters and sisters of the sultan. Other principal sections are the suite of the Valide Sultan (sultan’s mother), the so-called Blue and Pink salons, the bedrooms of sultans Abdülmecid, Abdülaziz and Mehmed V. Reşad, the section housing the lower ranking palace women known as the Cariyeler Dairesi, the rooms of the sultan’s wives (kadınefendi), and the study and bedroom used by Atatürk. All the main rooms are furnished with valuable carpets, ornaments, paintings, chandeliers and calligraphic panels.

Restoration of Dolmabahçe Palace has now been completed and every section is open to the public. Two galleries are devoted to an exhibition of precious items of various kinds, and fine examples of Yıldız porcelain from the National Palaces collection are displayed at the İç Hazine (Privy Purse) building. Paintings from the National Palaces collection can be seen in the Art Gallery, where they are displayed in rotation in the form of long-term exhibitions. On the lower floor beneath this gallery is a corridor containing a permanent exhibition of photographs showing the bird designs which feature in the palace’s architecture and its furnishings and ornaments. Abdülmecid Efendi Library in the Mabeyn is the other principal exhibition area at Dolmabahçe.

The Mefruşat Dairesi at the palace entrance now houses the Cultural and Information Center, which is responsible for research projects and promotion activities carried out at all the historic buildings attached to the Department of National Palaces. The center contains a library, mainly relating to the 19^th century, which is available for researchers.

There are cafes in the grounds near the Clock Tower, the courtyard of the Mefruşat Dairesi, the Aviary, and the Veliahd Dairesi. Items available in the souvenir shops here include books about the National Palaces, postcards, and reproductions of selected paintings from the art collection. The Ceremonial Hall and gardens are available for private receptions. Special exhibition areas have now been established, and numerous cultural and art events are held in the palace.

Topkapı Palace Museum

It is located on the promontory of the historical peninsula in İstanbul which overlooks both the Marmara Sea and the Bosphorus. The walls enclosing the palace grounds, the main gate on the land side and the first buildings were constructed during the time of Fatih Sultan Mehmet (the Conqueror) (1451 - 81). The palace has taken its present layout with the addition of new structures in the later centuries. Topkapı Palace was the official residence of the Ottoman Sultans, starting with Fatih Sultan Mehmet until 1856, when Abdülmecid moved to the Dolmabahçe palace, functioned as the administrative center of the state. The Enderun section also gained importance as a school.

The main exterior gate of the Topkapı Palace is the Imperial Gate (Bab-ı Hümayun) which opens up to the Ayasofya Square. This gate leads to a garden known as the First Court. This court has the Aya Irini Church which was once used as an ammunition depot and behind the Church there is the mint. In the past various pavillions allocated to different services of the palace were located in the First Court. In later years these have ben replaced with public buildings and schools. Some of these are still existing. At the end of the 19th century Archeology Museum and School of Fine Arts (now Oriental Works Museum) were built in the large garden which is to the northwest of the First Court. The oldest structure in this section is the Çinili Köşk built by Fatih, which is now used as the Museum of Turkish Tiles and Ceramics. On the walls of this outer garden facing Bab-ı ali (the Imperial Gate), there is Alay Köşkü (procession Pavillion) where the Sultans used to watch the marching ceremonies. A section of the outer garden was planned by the municipality at the beginning of the 20th century and opened to the public. Known today as the Gülhane Park, the entrance has one of the larger gates of the palace. After the First Court, there is the Second Court which contains the palace buildings. It is entered through a monumental gate called Bab'us-Selam or the Middle Gate. The buildings in this court form the outer section of the palace which is called Birun. On the right there are the instantly noticed palace kitchens with their domes and chimneys and the dormitories of those who worked there. The most important of the buildings on the left side of the court are the Kubbealtı and the Inner Treasury. Behind Kubbealtı rises the Justice Tower, which is one of the symbols of the Topkapı Palace. The Harem section, which comes all the way to the back of these buildings is entered from the Third Court. Third Court is entered through the gate called Bab'üs Sa'ade (Gate of the White Eunuiches). This section of the palace is called Enderun, and it is the section where the sultans live with their extended families. Hence it is specially protected. The barracks of the Akağalar, which guard Bab'üs Sa'ade are on both sides of the gate. There are two structures. The first which is immediately opposite the gate is the Throne Room or the Audience Hall. Here the sultans receive the ambassadors and high ranking state officials such as Grand Visier or the Visiers. Right behind the Throne Room there is the library built by Ahmet III (1703 - 30). On the right side of the Third Court, there is the barracks of the Enderun and the Privy Treasury which is also known as the Mehmet the Conqueror Pavilion. On the side facing the Fourth Court, there is the Larder Barracks of the Enderun, the Treasury Chamber and the Chamber of the Sacred Relics. The left side starts with the Harem. The harem which covers a large part of the Palace consists of about 60 spaces of varying sizes. The main structures which are located in front of the Harem, facing the Third Court are Akağalar Mosque, Sultan Ahmet Mosque, Barracks of the Sacred Relics Guards and Chambers of the Sacred Relics. Here, the sacred relics brought back by Sultan Yavuz Selim from Egypt in 1517 are kept. The Fourth Court is entered from a covered path going from both sides of the Treasury Room. Here the buildings are located in the first part of the court, which has two sections of different levels. On the left side of this section called Lala Garden or Lale Garden there is Mabeyn which is the beginning point of Harem's access to the garden, terrace for the ladies with removable glass enclosure, Circumcission Room, Sultan İbrahim Patio and another one of the symbols of Topkapı palace, the İftariye (or Kameriye) and Baghdat Pavilion. This pavillion was built by Murad IV in 1640 to commemorate the Baghdat Campaign. At the center of the first section of the Fourth Court, there is the Big Pool and Ravan Pavillion next to it. This pavillion was also built by Murad IV in 1629, to commemorate the Revan Campaign. The side facing the second section has Sofa Pavilion (Koca Mustafa Pasha Pavilion), Başbala Tower and Hekimbaşı (Chief Physician) Room. The Sofa Mosque and Esvap Chamber and the latest built Mecidye Pavilion are on the right hand side of the Fourth Court. Out of the pavillions built on the shore of the Marmara Sea, only Sepetciler Mansion has survived until the present.

During 18th. Century when the Topkapı palace took its final shape, it was sheltering a population of more than 10.000 in its outer (Birun) and inner (Enderun) and Harem sections. It shows no archirectural unity as new parts were added in every period according to the needs. However, this enables us to follow the stages Ottoman Architecture went through from the 15th to the middle of the 19th century at the Topkapı Palace. The buildings of the 15th - 17th centuries are simpler and those of the 18th - 19th centuries, particularly in terms of exterior and interior ornamentation are more complex.

Topkapı Palace was converted to a museum in 1924. Parts of the Palace such as the Harem, Baghdat Pavilion, Revan Pavilion, Sofa Pavilion, and the Audiance Chamber distinguish themselves with their architectural assets,while in other sections artifacts are displayed which reflect the palace life. The museum also has collections from various donations and a library.

Agri Ishak Pasha Palace

Ishak Pasha Palace is more of a complex than a mere palace. It is our second administrative campus after the Topkapı Palace in İstanbul and the most famous of the palaces built at recent decades.

The palace which was built on a hill at the side of a mountain 5 km. east of Doğubeyazıt District is the last large monumental structure of the Ottoman Empire in the "Lale Devri" Period. It is one of the most distinguished and magnificent examples of the 18^th century Ottoman architecture and is very valuable in terms of art history. According to the top of the door inscription at the Harem Section it was constructed in 1784 (1199 H.) according to the Islamic calendar.

As the ground building sits on is a valley slope, it is rocky and hard. Despite the fact that it is at the center of the Old Beyazıt city its three sides (north, west, south) are steep and sloped. There is a suitable flat area only to the east. The entrance of the palace is on that side. It's also its narrowest façade.

As the palace was built in an age when the castles ceased to be special and fire arms were developed and were abundently available its defense towards the hills on the east is weak. Its main gate is the weakest point in that respect. The structure of the main gate is no different than those seen in the palaces built in İstanbul and elsewhere in Anatolia and has a neat stone workmanship and carving.

Today we have very few examples of the historical Turkish palaces still surviving. One of these is the İshak Pasha Palace and complex.

Ishak Pasha Palace is composed of following sections in terms of architectural style:

1- Exterior façades
2- First and second courts
3- The men's quarter (selamlık)
4- The mosque building
5- The Soup Kitchen (Darüzziyafe)
6- Bath
7- Rooms of the Harem Section
8- Hall for ceremonies and entertaintment
9- Arch gates
10- Panteries and ammunition room
11- The mousoleum
12- The bakery
13- Dungeons
14- Some sections from interior design (doors, windows, cupboards, fireplaces, soft drink cupboard etc.)

The characteristic of the palace is in its mixture of Ottoman, Persian and Seljuk architectural styles. The palace was built in 1685 by II. İshakpaşa of the Çildıroğulları and Çolak Abdi Pasha and took its final form in 1784. The building occupies an area of approximately 115m. x 50 m. The portal on the eastern façade of the palace, which is built with cut stones, reflects the characteristics of the Seljuk art with its reliefs and decorations.

The palace is composed of two courts and the collection of structures positioned around them. Some of the buildings of the first court are destroyed. The second court which is surrounded on four sides with buildings has a rectangular plan. To the right, with reference to the entrance there is the men's quarter and behind it the harem section. At the end of these, there is the mosque and the mousoleum. The mousoleum is built in the style of the Seljuk "kümbet" (cupola) architecture. The palace section has two storeys. All of its 366 rooms are arranged on these two floors. Each room has a stone fireplace. The cavities within the stone walls indicate that the building as a whole possessed a central heating system.The reception hall is 30m.x3 m. It has stone walls and floor . Its walls are decorated with couplets and verses from the Koran in the decorative examples of the Turkish Calligraphy art. Among these a couplet, which in very free translation goes like "Ishak, upon will, made the whole world a place of benevolence and the date to witness this was one thousand one hundred ninetynine" and indicates that the palace was completed in 1784 A.D. The mousoleum in the second courtyard of the palace is built with cut stones This octaganal mousoleum is in the shape of the copolas, which is one of the most typical examples of the traditional Seljuk mousoleum architecture and has two storeys. Its walls are decorated with geometric motifs. Çolak Abdi Pasha, İshak Pasha and their close kin are resting at this mousoleum.

The interior and exterior architectural wealth of the İshak Pasha palace could be described forever. Whether the palace is taken as a whole or should its rooms and buildings studied individually, success, order and mastery is all that one can find

İshak Pasha Palace stands at a desolate valley today and the fact that it was the subject of various legends and stories add to its magnificent atmosphere some colour and mystery.

Akdamar Church

Akdamar Island, is 55km. from Van and a twenty minute motor ride from the jetty on Van - Tatvan highway. It is known for its original church. Akdamar Church was commissioned to architect priest Manuel by King Gakik I of the Vaspurakan dynasty during the years 915 - 921 B.C.

The church has a four leaved clover plan with a domed center, and it is built from red colored cut tufa stone.

At the exterior of the structures there are stone reliefs depicting religious themes from the Bible and Tevrat as well as earthly themes, such as life at palace, hunting scenes and human and animal figures. The manner these themes are worked show an influence of 9^th and 10 ^th century Abbasi Art, which was itself in turn greatly influenced by the Central Asian Turkish Art.

The interiors of the church walls are decorated with frescoes showing religios themes, which are practically disappearing today. These wall paintings have a special significance as the most comprehensive and oldest examples found in this region.

Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia)

Hagia Sophia church was built during the reign of Emperor Theodosius and burned down in the fire of Nika Revolt in 532 A.D. during the reign of Justinian. The same year Justinian ordered to build a new basilica, the one we can see today, and only five years later, 537 AD, it was opened to the public. The architects of this new basilica were Isidorus from Miletus (Söke) and Anthemious from Tralles (Aydın). The basilica was covered with the magnificient dome 55.60 m high and 30.80 - 31.88 m in diameter, with 40 frame timbers and 107 pillars.

In 1453, with the conquest of Istanbul, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror converted the church into a mosque. To strengthen the building architect Sinan did significant work in Hagia Sophia in the Turkish period. During the reign of Sultan Abdulmecid (1839 – 1861) de Fossati brothers made various restorations in the building. Hagia Sophia Museum, the legacy of both Christian and Muslim culture, was opened for visits according to the order of Ataturk and decision of the Turkish Assembly of Ministers on the 1st of February, 1935.

The Hagia Sophia Museum was included in the list of UNESCO List of World Heritage.

The activities of the Museum are supervised and supported by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Turkey.

Santa Claus

Saint Nicholas, who is known worldwide as Santa Claus, was born in the ancient Lycian city of Patara, an important city on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey.

Around 300 AD, during a prosperous era for Patara, a rich wheat merchant had a son and named him Nicholas. His birth was accepted as a gift from the Heavens, the fruit of his parents’ prayers and wows and a savior for the poor people. It is believed that he performed miracles even as a young man. According to one legend, Nicholas was trapped under the wreckage of an old church and he survived it while his mother was crying and calling out for him.

After the death of Nicholas’ father, he inherited a large estate which he decided to use to aid the poor. At around the same time, one of Patara’s wealthiest men fell into poverty to such an extent that he lacked the means to even put together dowries for his daughters. He felt so desperate that he was even considering selling his daughters when Nicholas decided to help them. One night he entered the their house secretly in order to remain anonymous and also to spare the family’s honor. While the family was asleep he dropped into the open window of the eldest daughter a bag of gold, enough to cover her dowry. In the morning, the daughter was overjoyed the find the gold which would save her from this desperate situation.

Later, Nicholas also decided to help the two younger daughters but since as their windows were closed, he dropped the money for them in a bag from the chimney. This started the legend of Santa Claus distributing presents at Christmas time. This story also explains why he is depicted in pictures and iconographic representations bearing three balls made of gold.

Another story from St. Nicholas’ life is as follows:

Nicholas went to Jerusalem to become a pilgrim. On his way back, he saved a ship from sinking. Miraculously, he also brought a drowned sailor back to life. From that time on, St. Nicholas has been known as the patron saint of sailors.

After some years, Nicholas left his home of Patara and moved to the nearby city of Myra. At that time, the bishop of Myra had passed away and no agreement could be reached on his successor. Finally the city’s residents decided that the next person to enter the local church would become their next bishop. The first to enter was Nicholas, and so he took on the church post. His miracles continued in Myra, including an incident in which he saved the lives of three generals. Another story goes as follows:

One year Myra experienced a great famine. A fleet carrying corn from Alexandria to Byzantium stopped off at Myra’s harbor of Andriake. Nicholas ran to the harbor and demanded that each ship give him a certain share of corn. When the sailors returned to Byzantium, they were shocked to discover that all the corn that they had given unwillingly was right back where they had left it.

Like many Christians of his era, Nicholas was imprisoned for a time on account of his faith by the Emperors Diocletian and Licinius. In 325, Nicholas participated in a council meeting held to settle a number of theological disputes within Christianity in his capacity as the bishop of Myra. A churchman named Bonaventure claimed that on his way to the council, Nicholas brought back to life three children who had been killed and were about to be eaten. Legend says that Nicholas, who is also known as the patron saint of students, is believed to have passed away at the age of 65 on December 6, 343. The Myrians built a church to honor his saintly memory and interred him in a sarcophagus as his final resting place.

On April 20, 1087, during the First Crusade, some parts of his skeleton were stolen and taken away by merchants from Bari. The rest of his remains can currently be found at the Antalya Museum.

Church of Santa Claus

A larger church in the basilica style was built at the site of the first church after it was ruined by an earthquake in 529. Peschlow assumes that two small residences on the southern part of the large wall and some parts of the northern wall are remnants of the original building. That church also suffered extensive damage through either an earthquake or at the hands of Arabian raiders in the eighth century and was subsequently rebuilt, but then in 1034 was completely destroyed in the attacks of the Arabian navy. An inscription on the church tells us that the building remained in ruins for a decade before being restored in 1042 under the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus and his wife Zöe. In the twelfth century, the building was enlarged with some additions and rebuilt once again.

The Turks began to govern Myra in the 13th century and in that period people worshipped freely at the church and the building was repaired. In 1738, the chapel near the main building was also repaired. C. Texier, a traveler who toured Anatolia in 1833-1837, visited Myra and mentioned the historical church in his books. Then in March of 1842, a soldier named Lt. Spratt and a professor named Forbes came to Myra and drew a sketch of the church. They were able to discern that a monastery had once stood near it.

During the Crimean War in 1853, a group of Russians became interested in the church and they purchased land in the name of Countess Golici, intending to found a Russian colony there. The Ottoman state recognized the political dimension of this initiative and took the land back, but they relented to demands that the church be restored. In 1862, a Frenchman named August Salzmann was hired to do the restoration. However, his work was badly thought out and it violated the church’s original design. Under Salzmann’s watch a bell tower was added to building in 1876, which has survived to our day.

Nearly 2,000 churches were ascribed to Santa Claus, the holy saint of many cities. His life story and his miracles are recorded in many books, the earliest written by a friar named Michael from the Byzantiumis Stadion Monastery in 750-800. Let’s take a stroll together through this beautiful site, the church of St. Nicholas.

After coming through the entrance, you walk along a path and can see a statue of Santa Claus in the green area.

A cross-shaped chapel was built on the south of this church, which was the only church with a dome that existed here in the fourth century. The church was also enlarged towards the north. Additionally, in 1862-63, a narthex and some adjacent structures were added to the building both inside and out.

In fact, the main entrance of the building is on the west side but let’s continue with on our present direction. From the courtyard, of which two pillars still remain, taking a few steps down will bring you to the southern section, which was added to the main building during the Byzantine era. This part is shaped like a cross, and here can be found an apse with three arches. You can see the original stylobate, or column foundation, at the front and the alter pedestal in the middle of the apse. In the apse’s niche can be seen figures of several saints whose coloring is now faded. In the small niche below them there is a fresco of Santa Claus. In this section and on the floor of the main church’s southeastern chapel, there are mosaics in various styles. In the niche, which stands against the western stairs, there are frescoes of Jesus and the Virgin Mary.

The well-preserved door leads us to the long side of the cross-shaped chapel where sarcophagi stand. This is the longer side of the cross in the chapel. The frescoes of the niches which contain sarcophagi are decorated with many illustrations of saints, but time has almost completely faded them away. Two niches on the northern wall and the Virgin Mary fresco on the column are interesting specimens. Inscriptions on the column which bears the Santa Claus fresco tell us that it was placed upside down.

The first Roman-style sarcophagus with acanthus leaves in the first niche belongs to Santa Claus. It is said that the decoration of the sarcophagus with fish squamae designs symbolizes his protection over sailors. The sarcophagus was broken by the pirates from Bari on April 20, 1087 when they stole some parts of his skeleton and took it with them to Bari.

The other two sarcophagi are rather unadorned. Apart from the sarcophagi in the niches, there are also two more tombs on the ground. From here, you can go through the main courtyard furnished with big panels via a door. In the courtyard, there are two empty tombs in a niche. The motifs of cross and hoe must have been done in the memory of Santa Claus. On the left, there is a tomb placed in the wall inscribed with the date 1118. Through the courtyard, you can go first to the outer narthex, and then to the inner narthex which leads you to the main area after passing through three doors. This place is full of bishops’ illustrations. This main area opens to side naves with three arches. There are two naves on the southern part of the main building. Some say that the sarcophagus of the second nave belongs to Santa Claus, but relieves of a man and woman on the sarcophagus prove otherwise. There’s another tomb in the niche of the side nave. On the dome of the northern nave there are frescoes of Jesus and his 12 apostles. Excavations on the side nave are continuing. On the western part of the excavation area, there are three chambers. There should be a dome with windows and rims in the middle of the building but during Salzmann’s restoration, the area was covered with a large skeletal stone rib.

Kariye (Chora) Church

This church near Edirnekapı at Istanbul is famous for its mosaics and frescoes. It was built by Maria Dukaina, mother - in - law of Byzantine Emperor Alexius Komnenos, and was later expanded. It was dedicated to Jesus Christ. Most of the mosaics and frescoes were made during 1305-1320. It was converted into a mosque during the

reign of Bayezit II. It was restored in 1929, the mosaics revealed and, after Ayasofia, was opened to public as a museum. It is also referred to as the Mosaic Museum

Sumela Monastry

The ruins of a monastery can be seen on the slopes of the Zigana Mountains to the south of Trabzon and at the foot of the mountain at the bottom of a wooded valley flows one of the tributaries of Değirmen Creek, which terminates at Trabzon. This place is known as “Meryem Ana”, or “the Virgin Mary” by the local people. Its old name is “Sumela Monastery”. Many people consider its origins to be extremely old, and this opinion is widely held among the Byzantine Greek community of the Black Sea coast. According to legends about the foundation of the monastery in books about Trabzon printed in Greek, the monastery was originally founded in the reign of Theodosius and rebuilt in the sixth century in the reign of Justinian by Belisarios, one of his commanders. However, foreign experts who have conducted on-site investigations consider that there is nothing to substantiate this hypothesis. The Monastery's main source of income is an icon of the Virgin Mary, which is reputed to be of great age and believed by many to possess miraculous properties. According to the legend, the icon is the work of Saint Luke, one of the disciples of Jesus Christ and it was sent to Athens after the death of Luke. However, in the reign of Theodosius (4^th century) the icon declared its desire to leave Athens and was borne to this hollow in the mountains around Trabzon by angels and placed upon a stone. It was at that time that two hermits by the name of Barnabus and Sophronius, who were then travelling from Athens to Trabzon, happened to find the icon in this deserted spot. Thus, buildings which are the subject of such legends are automatically regarded as being exceptionally old. Sumela is not the only example of this type, it is only one of a number.

It is said that “Sumela” (the Greek name of this monastery, founded in the name the Virgin Mary), comes from the word “melas”, which means “dark” or “black”. Many consider that this stems from the dark hues of the mountain valley in which the Monastery is situated. However, in the opinion of the author the word “sumela” could be an adjective used to refer to the icon of the Virgin Mary. The colour of the icon, which is so dark that it could be described as black, was one of the things that struck the eminent historian J.P Fallmerayer (1790-1861) when he visited the Monastery in 1840 and could well be the origin of the name. It is known that l2th century Georgian art produced a number of icons of the Virgin Mary known as Black Madonnas, and these icons found their way into a number of monasteries. Black was used in order to emphasise the mysterious expression on the Virgin's face. It is also considered that the origins of this Georgian style could be traced to ancient Indian art. If the close proximity of the Sumela Monastery to the Caucasus is considered, then it would be reasonable to assume that this icon is a Black Madonna from which the Sumela Monastery gained its name. Thus, the mountain also became known as Oros Mela (Kara Dağ) because of the Monastery.

It has not been possible to conduct much research into the age and nature of this Black Madonna. It is clear from a good photograph of the icon taken a number of years ago that it has a cracked black wooden surface with a split down the middle on which no lines or paint, in short, anything resembling a picture can be seen. The silver frame surrounding the icon, judging by the motifs and inscriptions adorning it, dates from circa 1700 and its workmanship is commonplace. According to the information we gain from the photograph it is questionable whether the icon of the Virgin Mary in the Sumela Monastery is a true Black Madonna.

Black Madonnas are more common in Eastern Europe. They are always kept in places of worship high up in forested mountains, especially those that are a place of pilgrimage for Christians. There are usually healing springs in these locations as well. It is believed in France that such icons arrived there by miraculous means. It is interesting to note that religious beliefs as far as this phenomenon is concerned are very similar in a number of widely scattered locations.

To put it in a nutshell, the Sumela Monastery at Trabzon was first referred to by this name in the Komnenos period. Sumela was founded in what must be the most beautiful spot in the magnificent scenery of this area, in which there are a number of monasteries, places of worship and other buildings of a religious nature. Sumela expanded over the centuries of Ottoman rule and became a complex of considerable size. The centre of the complex is a cave, or rather a hollow almost 1200 m above sea level and about 300 m above the river at the bottom of the valley, in the middle of a slope so steep it could be said to be almost vertical. The narrow head of rock jutting out in front of the cave, access to which is tiring and difficult in the extreme, formed the foundation of the Monastery, which grew in size and accumulated wealth over the centuries. Sumela is the most famous of the old monasteries in and around Trabzon.

It is known that mountains, high ground and caves have been invested with religious significance ever since ancient times. It is possible that there was once an altar in the cave and that as Christianity began to spread a group of monks set up a retreat. Of course, this hypothesis is based on information gained about similar cases. Only a detailed study and excavations carried out in and around the cave itself could cast light on its accuracy. However, no exact information can be gained at present. Although it is obvious that the legend about the Monastery having been founded by Barnabas and Sophronios in the reign of Theodosius (4th-5th century) and repaired by Belisarios, one of Justinian's commanders, does not rest on concrete fact, like many legends it survives. If the foundation legend is ignored, then the existing monastery buildings point to its having been built some time after the thirteenth century. At that time the Principality of Trabzon, under the Komnenos Dynasty, was developing as an entirely separate state within the Byzantine Empire and its capital, Trabzon, dominated the area. The title held by the princes, who saw themselves as the true heirs of the Byzantine Empire and described themselves as emperors was not accepted by the true Byzantine Empire when, in 1261, it regained control of Istanbul and revitalised the old Byzantine state. It was Alexios Komnenos III (1349-1390) who maintained an intricate system of contacts with the neighbouring Turkish beyliks (the equivalent of principalities) who should be considered as the true founder of this monastery. Historical sources and documents point to the fact that Alexios III, whose two sisters and four daughters were married to Turkish beys (rulers of beyliks), took a special interest in the Sumela Monastery. It also emerges that Alexios's great grandfather, grandfather and father had made donations to the monks, which would indicate that Sumela had been a religious centre since the reign of Ioannes II (1280-1285), great grandfather of Alexios. According to another legend Alexios III, who was saved from certain death in a storm by the intervention of the Virgin Mary, had the monastery rebuilt and endowed it with rich foundations, the conditions of which were set out in a Krysobullos, or decree. A verse consisting of five lines inscribed on a tablet dated 1360, which was over the monastery gates until 1650 states that “Alexios III, founder (ktetor) of this place, is emperor of East and West (Iberia)”. In 1361 Alexios witnessed an eclipse of the sun here at Sumela and the sun depicted on coins minted by Alexios is considered to refer to this event. In the Deed of Foundation, dated 1365, apart from references to the administration, land and income of the monastery there is also a warning about the “danger of a Turkish invasion of Trabzon” and the monks are urged to be “always on the alert”. Manuel III (1390-1417), son of Alexios III, like his father, took an active interest in buildings of a religious nature. In the year of his succession he presented an ornate cross believed to contain a holy relic (stavrotek), in this case a piece of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified, to the Sumela Monastery. The last members of the Trabzon Komnenos dynasty issued decrees endowing the monastery with great wealth or sanctioning its deeds of foundation. After the conquest of Trabzon and the surrounding area by the Ottomans, the sultans issued decrees protecting the ancient rights of the Sumela Monastery, just as they had for the monasteries on Mount Athos and at Sina, in fact they even granted certain privileges to Sumela and presented gifts as well. Thus the two candlesticks once in the Monastery are known to have been presented by Selim I (1512-1520). A decree issued by Mehmet II, conqueror of Trabzon, acknowledging the rights of the monastery exists. Local publications inform us that other, similar decrees were kept in the monastery; these include the decrees of Bayezid II, Selim II, Selim III, Sultan Murad and Ibrahim, Mehmed II, Süleyman the Magnifıcent, Mustafa and Ahmet III. It has been established that the Voivodas of Wallachia took a close interest in Sumela from the second half of the l8th century onwards, constantly despatching letters and aid. Among these rulers was Ghikas (1755), Stephan (1764), and Hypsilantes (1775). Naturally, all the correspondence between the Patriarchate in Istanbul and the monastery throughout the Ottoman period was kept in the archives of the monastery. Sumela both expanded and grew richer under the aegis of the Voivodas in the l8th century and many parts of it were rebuilt. Archbishop Ignatios had the surfaces of all the walls adorned with frescos in 1749. The golden age of this monastery was unquestionably the l9th century, when rebuilding and magnificent decorations were carried out with gifts sent in a wave of enthusiasm by Greek Orthodox communities all over Anatolia.

According to what Fallmerayer wrote in 1840, the monks of Sumela travelled the whole of Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Balkans and even Russia to collect money by selling rather poor copies of the icon referred to above. This money would then be taken back to the monastery. One of these monks , who was carrying the sum of forty thousand kuruş, a fortune in those days, was robbed and murdered in Kayseri. The Ottoman state had the murderers arrested and executed and the stolen money was returned to the monastery. The interior of the monastery was sumptuously appointed and around 1860 new structures were added, forming a large complex of buildings. A number of foreign travellers visited the monastery in the l9th century and wrote about it.

One of the most detailed descriptions of the Sumela Monastery is that of G. Palgrave (1826-1888). In an article published in February, 1871 he provides a great deal of interesting information, among which is a statement to the effect that the popular legend about an army led by Sultan Murat firing cannon at its walls is entirely lacking in foundation because Murat's army could not have been anywhere near the monastery. When Palgrave made his visit a large, barrack-like structure referred to as “the new building” had been completed three years previously. According to what Palgrave saw, the structure consisted of seven storeys including the arches in the abyss itself; the actual living quarters had four rows of windows and there was a set-back storey on top. There were single rows of eight rooms on each floor and the structure was an extremely sound one. Palgrave, too, refers to the gifts made by Murat and Selim I and states that he saw a miniature of the decree issued by Alexios III. According to a decree issued by Selim II, which Palgrave saw in the monastery, it is stated openly that the sultan was displeased by unfavourable remarks made about himself by the monks.

The Russian invasion of Trabzon, which lasted from 18 April 1916 until 24 February 1918 aroused hopes that a Christian Pontus state would be reborn in Trabzon. The doors were finally slammed on this hope in 1923 after the War of National Liberation, when all Byzantine Greeks in Turkey were sent to Greece and the Sumela Monastery was closed down. Those who migrated founded a new monastery at Verria (formerly Kara Ferye) in Macedonia. Their reluctance to part with their old memories and desire to keep traditions alive were signified by a modern icon of the Virgin Mary placed in the monastery.

The deserted monastery swiftly deteriorated and a fire which broke out in 1930 destroyed all the wooden parts of the buildings. A great deal of needless destruction was inflicted by persons supposedly searching for treasure, this time the stone part of the structure being destroyed. The first thing to attract one's attention here is the ruined state of the walls, together with the fact that all the frescos have been expertly removed and obviously taken away. This task could not have been carried out successfully by the local population. It is obvious that it was done by foreign souvenir-hunters with some knowledge of the subject.

The Sumela Monastery is reached by means of a steep path through the forest. Its entrance was evidently designed with security in mind and final access to the building was via a long, narrow flight of steps. A large aqueduct abutting the mountainside at the side of the steps brought water to the monastery. Old photographs reveal a structure with ten wide arches which is in extremely good condition, but it is now in ruins. As you pass through the main entrance, where there is accomodation for the doorkeeper and other rooms you descend a flight of steps into an inner courtyard. In the centre on the left is a church built on to the cave containing the sacred spring, opposite which are a number of monastery buildings laid out in a random fashion. On the left side of the courtyard is a comparatively new fountain where the waters of the sacred spring oozing from the mountainside collect. It is now half ruined and full of rubble. On the left, inside the cave, is the church-which is the oldest part of the monastery. The church juts out at right angles into the courtyard. And its walls are covered with frescos, both inside and out. However, a close examination of the frescos reveals that they are of comparatively recent origin and that beneath them are layers of much older and more valuable murals. The existence of the latter is also recorded in various sources. On the right side of the courtyard are a number of rooms for the accommodation of guests known to have been built circa 1860, together with a library and there are a number of small chapels around the courtyard. In old photographs taken before the monastery reached its present stage of dilapidation we see that the walls of all the buildings facing the courtyard have wooden balconies and verandahs. Rice describes the fine wood-carving on some of the above. In one of the now extremely dilapidated chapels are murals considered to date from the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries. At the far end of the courtyard a narrow corridor extends above a narrow, jutting rock and from this point an impressive building contiguous with the cliff face extends in the other direction. This part of the complex, which is most striking when viewed from a distance, is the main monastery building where the monks once lived. Apart from the three main floors there are several rows of cellars below and a set-back storey at the top. The rows of arches and galleries under the eaves endow the building with a stately air. This barrack-like building, which is visible as a whiteness on the darker background of the cliff when viewed from afar was built in 1860 in the course of the major repairs and renewal referred to above. However, apart from its size and location the building does not possess any really noteworthy artistic or architectural features. There was once a wooden roof with wide overhanging eaves but this, together with the timber structure of the building has collapsed, leaving only four walls, in the middle of which is the vast, empty well of the building. When one looks downwards from the tower that juts from the front wall the dizzying height of its location becomes clear.

In spite of the fact that the architectural and artistic value of this structure is disputable it has been regarded in recent years as the most important part of Sumela. However, it is the church in one corner of the inner courtyard that is the most important. The church was formed by hewing away the rock of the cave interior to create a smoother surface and closing the mouth of the cave with a straight wall. Abutting the latter is a small chapel which juts out from the wall. The inside and outside walls of the chapel were adorned with layer upon layer of frescos from the l8th century onwards and in some places three layers can be clearly discerned. The bottom layer is superior to the others in terms of colour and quality. The change in subject-matter discernable in each layer is interesting and inscriptions stating that these works were executed in 1710 and 1732 have been discovered. On the other hand, on the courtyard-facing wall of the rockface church frescos dating from the reign of Alexios III were once found. There, on either side of Alexios III stood his sons, Manuel III and Andronikos. Unfortunately, however, no trace of these portraits remains today. Outside, parts of a huge Apocalypse scene, of which only the upper bands remain, can be seen on the rock-face and underneath its flaking plaster other scenes are visible. On the wall of the small chapel a dragon and two mounted figures, St George and St Demetrios, are discernable and we discovered the existence of a further two layers of paintings beneath this top layer. Thus, on top of the bottom layer, where the figure of an emperor wearing a diadem is depicted is yet another figure of the same kind also wearing a diadem-and on top of this, a Transfiguration scene. On the other hand, in the older parts of the monastery, there are correspondingly valuable paintings in places where the plaster has not flaked off completely, in the lower layers, but this would be the subject of a separate study.

Works of Turkish art, too, are in evidence in some of the buildings around the courtyard. For example, details such as the cupboards, nooks and fireplaces in the rooms gave the interior a positively Turkish air. The pointed arches of the fountain where the water of the sacred spring accumulates are also Turkish in character. However, possibly the most striking features are the painted designs in dark red on some of the walls, these being an imitation of the brick pointing designs encountered in l8th century Turkish buildings. There is also said to be a rockface chapel where there are a number of frescos hewn into the mountain side about one hundred metres to the north of the monastery.

Sixty six of the mainly l7th and l8th century manuscripts from the monastery library, which had been previously catalogued, are now in Ankara Museum. A further one thousand tetraevangeliums (the Four Gospels), adorned with minia- tures and dating from Byzantine times, are kept in the Ayasofya (Haghia Sophia) Museum in Istanbul. There are also 150 printed books. Of the plate and other valuables from the treasury of the church is a silver cross (stavrotek) presented by Manuel III, Prince of Trabzon, a handwritten manuscript and a large number of documents, which are now in the Museum of Byzantine Works in Athens. The icon of this monastery, known as “Our Lady of the Roses”, is now in the National

Gallery in Dublin. The silver candlesticks presented by Sultan Selim were stolen in 1877. Another icon belonging to the monastery is in a private , collection in Oxford. In the Benaki Museum, Athens, is a silver medallion on which the Holy Trinity is depicted and another ornate medallion dated 1438, together with an altar cloth (epitaphios) dated 1438.

A report concerning the restoration of Sumela Monastery was recently prepared and relief plans of the eight map sections covered by the monastery drawn up.

THE HEALING WATERS OF THE SUMELA MERYEM ANA MONASTERY (The Monastery of the Virgin Mary)

This short note has been taken from an article by Sabahattin Eyuboğlu entitled “Anadolu'da Halk Hekimliği” (Folk Medicine in Anatolia), published in Tıpta Yenilikler, No:6, February, 1961, pps 76-77.

We visited the Sumela (Meryem Ana) Monastery and its environs. This monastery resembles an eagle's nest which has been half hewn into the steep cliff face above a pine forest at the foot of the Zigana Mountains. Apart from its narrow entrance there is no other possible access to this place. Its known history stretches back as far as the l6th century and most of the frescos on its crumbling walls date from the l7th and l8th centuries. It looks as if a number of repairs and additions have been made to its bold architecture. Into a sacred pool in the centre of the Monastery large drops of water drip at irregular intervals from thirty or forty metres above. It is these drops of water which have offered hope to sufferers of incurable ailments over the centuries and made the Monastery rich. In the old days both Christians and Muslims came here from far and wide to take the cure, first offering impressive gifts and sacrifices. Twenty or so sick persons arrived within the half hour or so that we were inside the Monastery, among them a father who had brought his crippled son from Izmit. The sick people undressed and stood waiting for the healing drops to fall on them. Due to the fact that the drops did not fall in the same places, a cure consisting of seven, eleven or twenty drops of water could last quite a long time, thus, drops of water falling frequently and regularly were regarded as auspicious. A drop suddenly falling on a sick person after a long wait must have been an exciting experience. The colourful and impressive scenery visible on the climb up to the Monastery and on the descent, the sound of countless waterfalls in the valley and the fragrance of the forest enhanced the awe-inspiring atmosphere of the Monastery. It is worth dwelling on the fact that in many parts of Anatolia the Virgin Mary is regarded as a source of health by Muslims, too. Perhaps the Virgin Mary filled the place once occupied by the pagan deities of ancient times.

Suleymaniye Mosque

At one's first glance there are two things that are particularly remarkable in the ancient monuments of the Ottomans: the choice of the site and the perfect unity of the whole. Whether or not it is in a raised place, the site always has a view of vast open spaces and however far one may look, one may see the sky. The structure as a whole is broad and imposing. All details of the monument, however charged with multiple ornaments it may be, simultaneously contribute to a general effect that is always simple and always unique.

İf, among all the masterpieces which are imbued with the genius of Master Sinan Master and of his pupils, there is one that fills more perfectly than the others these fundamental conditions of Ottoman architecture, it is undoubtedly the Süleymaniye. Situated at the top of a hill dominating the Kantarcılar district between the Ministry of Wlar and the Office of the Sheikhulislam, the Süleymaniye soars majestically towards the sky with nothing to hinder its ascent. From the vast platform of its enclosure, one captures at a single glance Europe and Asia, the two seas that bathe Istanbul, and the smiling Princes Isles. Further still, in the vaporous transparency of the horizon, the giant Bithynian Olympus takes shape against a pure sky, standing like an ever present witness to the memory of the cradle of ancient Ottoman power. Confronted by such a tableau, the spirit can conceive only noble ideas. Founded in year 964 of the Hegira (1556 of the Christian era) by Sultan Süleyman the Lawgiver, for whom history has also decreed the names of "the Great" and "the Magnificent'; the Süleymaniye is preceded by an interior court or square flanked by four minarets. By this number, according to tradition, the founder wanted to indicate that he was the fourth Ottoman sovereign since the conquest of Constantinople. In the same way, the total number of the balconies of its minarets indicates that he was the tenth sultan since Osman Ghazi, the glorious root of his line.

The two minarets located at the two sides of the facade have two balconies each, and the two other two, which are at the other end of the square on each side of the porch, have three balconies each. The total number, for the four minarets, yields ten balconies, all with corbelling in stalactites. Three beautiful doors whose openings are formed of flattened curues are each surmounted by an ogee arch and give access through the frontage and the two other sides of the courtyard. A cloister of twenty four arcades runs around and is supported by an equal number of columns. The pair closest to the door in the facade are of porphyry; of the remainder, twelve columns of pink granite alternate with ten of white marble. All are of the crystallized order. Their capitals are of white marble, and the edges of their stalactites heavily gilded.

Domes, which number twenty four, surmount the gallery of tbe cloister. Their cupolas are painted with ornaments and flowers on a ground, and the largest, located midway along the porch, in front of the entrance to the nave, is decorated with pendentives in white marble stalactites, with gilding on the edges of crystalliza- tions. The door of the nave is a niche decorated with stalactites, also fashioned from gilded white marble in a design of great purity and aspect of true monumentality. The proportions are large. Two other smaller niches are located along each side at half the distance between the entrance to the nave and the courtyard wall. The windows of the porch have quadrangular bays surmounted by ogee arches lavishly decorated with glazed tiles that have a royal blue ground on which beautiful Arabic letters are interlaced, tracing out in pure white sacred verses from the Quran.

A very simple fountain, in the form of a parallelogram with four vertical faces and covered by a zinc roof, occupies the center of the square. Its decoration, sober and gracious, consists of a metal grill painted in emerald green and an openwork lattice of geometrical rosettes, above which runs a frieze of white marble carued with broad leaves whose hearts are slightly tinted aqua- marine. The court is entirely paved with enormous flagstones of white marble, except for the passage which gives access, through the porch, inside the mosque. There, in front of the main door, is placed a round monolithic flagstone of the richest porphyry with a diameter of approximately two meters. If we should believe a popular legend associated with this flagstone, it marks a tragic event and played a bloody role during the construction of the Süleymaniye courtyard. Sultan Süleyman had himself chosen and indicated a sample of the most precious porphyry with which to enrich, the place before the mihrab inside mosque which indicates the direction of Mecca towards which the faithful perform their prostrations. He spelled out the particulars of size and finish to a skilful workman who knew the destination of the stone. This craftsman, who was a Christian, thought he would do a pious deed by carving on the flagstone a cross, perhaps hoping that merely by the sight of this emblem, all the Muslims would convert spontaneously. He had undoubtedly not reflected, or perhaps he was unaware, that the Islamic religion absolutely proscribes places reserved for the worship of any image. The flagstone of porphyry became, by virtue of the fact that a cross had even been carved on it, unsuitable with the ornamentation of mosque.

Sultan Süleyman, indignant at seeing all his care thus rendered useless, was provoked, they say, into a violent rage. He condemned the workman to death, and ordered that it be carried out then and there, in front of his eyes. They thus brought into the courtyard a throne, on which the sovereign sat down to preside over the execution. The sculptor was decapitated in his presence and to preserve at the same time the memory of this disobedience and its terrible punishment, they carved deeply into the block of the marble where the seat of the sultan had sat and where the head of the victim had fallen, two signs which vaguely represent the outline of a throne and that of a head; they are still to be seen there today. As for the porphyry, flagstone, so that it would not be completely wasted, they turned it over so that the cross was on the bottom and then installed it in front of the principal entrance to the nave with the result that, unknown to themselves, all who pass over it are treading on the cross. It is thus fulfills a function quite contrary to the proselytical intentions of the executed sculptor. Nothing prevents us from believing in this legend, which bears all the attributes characteristic of the truth, for it is known that leniency did not number among the favorite virtues of Sultan Süleyman the Lawgiver. Moreover, at that time, tolerance and mercy were practiced no better in the west than they were in the East. Francis I, the restorer of arts and the patron of literature, also had the philosopher and scholar Etienne Dolet publicly burned alive; Charles V formally took part in the "acts of faith" of the Spanish Inquisition.

The Islamic religion, at least, has never had an institution similar to the Holy Office. Be that as it may, afterpassing over the legendary porphyry flagstone, we enter the nave, where we first of all are overcome by our admiration of the lofty and vast cupola of the dome, painted in a wash of clear tones of blue, white, and gold. These three colors form the basis of the entire decorative harmony of the building: its paintings, sculptures, precious marbles, tiles, etc, both inside and out. Everywhere, the white and blue dominate the white especially. A few pink granite and porphyry columns or insets, a few lines the color of blood, freshen the light without interrupting this harmony; the gildings of the stalactites are everywhere applied with a solemnity that does not disturb the tranquility. The colossal vault is supported by four gigantic upright piers. Around the sides are columns that support the lateral galleries and the first landing, which contains the loges for the ladies and extends in a square around the nave. Three circular galleries gird the central rotunda. During the nights of Ramazan and on other holy days, splendid illuminations engulf the balustrades which circumscribe them, and highlight all the elegant details of the stars, flowers, foliage, and scrollwork in flame. The first of these galleries is reached by two staircases that are located conveniently close to the entrance. The two uppergalleries, the highest of which is at the same level as the great central cupola, is reached by wooden ladders placed on the roof outside the dome. In this last gallery, there is a curious acoustical effect: sounds made anywhere in the interior are concentrated here and even softly-spoken words uttered in the nave or the aisles may be distinctly heard here.

Another curiosity worthy of remark, and which could be pro- posed as an example to architects, is the following one: tunnels dug in the ground and faced with solid masonry, lead from the interior of the mosque to external tanks that are used for the distribution of water to all the dependencies of the Süleymaniye. The famous architect of this mosque, Master Sinan, combined this supply so as to take advantage of it in order to maintain inside the nave a mild and uniform temperature. By means of wooden trap doors that are located all over the central part of the floor of the nave, the air contained in these underground tunnels is fed into the mosque, where, as a result, the temperature is always warm in winter and cool in summer. All the inscriptions that decorate the Süleymaniye were executed by the famous calligrapher Hasan Çelebi, who is buried beside his master in Sütlüce by the Sweet Taters of Europe. Among the outstanding calligraphic ornamentation one should particularly mention the large rosettes of glazed tiles adorned with white letters on a royal blue ground and framed by borders of foliage executed in turquoise blue which decorate the two sides of the mihrab. Like the pulpit placed to its left, the mihrab is made of white marble, cazved in stalactites that are gilded with gold. The marble plates composing the pulpit number only four. The gate and base are formed of single slabs and measure eight meters, one in its length and the other in its height. These are also the measurements of the niche in which the mihrab is set. The imperial loge, situated at the right, is also of white. It is supported by porphyry columns with capitals in the crystallized order that are fashioned of gilded white marble. There are two richly-deco- rated fountains that are intended for ablutions. The door of this loge is, like all the woodwork of the building, engulfed in carved geometric rosettes. A kürsü (pulpit) abutting the pillar closer to the imperial loge is also worthy of mentioning for the remarkable execution of work of this last kind, in which walnut has been finely cut with open-work and carved with boldness and delicacy. At the other end of the nave, on the pillar on the opposite side, the balcony of the muezzin is set. Simpler, but almost as beautiful as the imperial loge, it is also of the crystallized order. Behind the muezzin's balcony along the low sides, is located the library, separated from the nave by a superb screen of brass worked in rococo ornamentation. It was repaired during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I by his grand vizier, Mustafa Pasha. More recently, this screen was renovated by Ahmed Vefik Efendi. .

Leaving the nave, one passes in front of external galleries with superimposed orders: the lower is in the crystallized order and has ogival arcades in which broad and high arches alternate with low and narrow ones, The upper order is planar with a row of regular arcades that are narrow and high. On the side of the mosque which looks towards Mecca, there are cemeteries planted with rose bushes in the center of which have been erected several splendid tombs among which is that of the mosque's benefactor. Among all these illustrious dead, the architect of Süleymaniye does not appear; instead, Master Sinan built for himself a modest and charming mausoleum, located not far from there, at the intersection of two streets, between the enclosure outside of the mosque and the Office of the Sheikhulislam, which in his day was the headquarters of the Janissaries.

It is known that this great artist was a member of that terrifying militia which, after having raised the military might of Turkey to its brightest apogee, then turned and because of its continued mutinies and the bloody tyranny that it exercised over the sover eigns themselves and all their subjects, its abolition became essential for the advancement of the empire. During the entire course of his long and glorious life Master Sinan never ceased to receive the pay and pension due to the haseki ~privy household~ corps of Janissaries. The violent suppression of this turbulent and undisciplined body, ordered by Sultan Mahmud II, continued until the very tomb leaving no trace nor any emblem that might remind posterity of its odious memory: even the stone turbans that distinguished the burial places of these eternally proscribed militiamen were broken. In one honorable exception the tomb of Master Sinan was respected, and thus, thanks to the very special indulgence of the sovereign, one may see still see standing over the slab of white marble, the grandmaster Ottoman architecture, the typical turban of the haseki corps. The principal dependencies of the Süleymaniye are: a special college for the study of the oral traditions of the Prophet; four higher schools (medreses); a preparatory college for the sciences; a school of medicine; a primary school; a kitchen and hospice for students; a great public bath; and a very famous asylum for lunatics.

The historian Peçevi (v 1, p 424) says that, according to what was appeared in the accounts of the director of construction, the expenditure for this building amounted to 896.883 florins, which was worth 53, 782,900 aspers then, of which so were equivalent to a gurush. The gurush in the time of Sultan Süleyman is estimated by Mr Belin, in the Mecidiye currency to be worth so piastres and 27 paras.

Selimiye Mosque

It was built in Edirne during 1568-1575 by architect Mimar Sinan upon the orders of Sultan Selim II. Mimar Sinan has referred to this mosque as his masterpiece. It has 4 minarets, each with three galleries, and 71 m high. Three separate staircases lead up to the galleries. The dome is 31.28 m in diameter and its height from the floor is 43.28 m. It rests on eight pillars. The mosque is famous for its pulpit and tilings. During the Russian invasion of Edirne in 1878, some of the tiles were taken to Russia.

Sultanahmet Mosque

This mosque was built by Sultan Ahmet I during 1609-1616 in the square carrying his name in İstanbul. The architect is Sedefhar Mehmet Ağa. It is the only mosque in Turkey with six minarets. The mosque is 64 x 72 m in dimensions. The central dome is 43 m in height and is 33.4 m in diameter. 260 windows surround the mosque. Due to its beautiful blue, green and white tilings it has been named the "Blue Mosque" by Europeans. The inscriptions were made by Seyyid Kasım Gubari.

Inns, Shops, Bazaars

Grand Bazaar (Kapalıçarşı)
This bazaar was first built by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror and was expanded during the reign of Sultan Süleyman the Great (!520-1566), and reached its present form in 1701. Its extends over 65 streets, covering an area of 30.702 square meters. It contains a mosque, 21 inns, two vaulted bazaars, seven fountains, a well and 3300 shops. It possesses 18 gates, eight of them large, ten of then smaller. It has surrived five fires, and has been restored and repaired and has reached our present times.

Egyptian Bazaar
Situated at Eminönü in Istanbul, it was originally built by Hatice Turban Sultan, the mother of Mehmet IV as a foundation for the New Mosque. It was completed in 1660. It has an I.shaped design. It possesses 6 gates and 86 shops. It was restored in 1943.

Sacred Places, Sacred, Objects, Convents

Eyüp Sultan
This mausoleum next to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque in Istanbul is one of the widely visited sacred sites. The flag bearer of Muhammed, Ebu Eyyüb Ensari killed here during the first siege, (672-679) of the Arabs in Istanbul. Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror built the first mosque and mausoleum in 1458. The mosque as we have it today, is the form built by Sultan Selim III in the place of the original. The Ottoman Sultans, after gaining access to the throne, used to have their sword girding ceremonies here. In the cemetary of the mosque there are many tombs, each of artistic value, of many important characters of the past.

Sacred Relics
These are belongings of Prophet Muhammed, his friends and other prophets. After Sultan Selim I conquered Egypt in 1517, these were brought to Istanbul, and some others were collected from other Islamic countries. They are preserved, and exhibited in the Topkapı Palace in a special section.

Hacıbektaş Convent
This is in the Hacıbektaş town of Nevşehir. It was built as an institution in memory of Hacıbektaş Veli. The convent was built during the Selçuk period and was expanded and restored by the Ottomans. It comprises courtyards, temples, and a mausoleum. It was converted into a museum in 1964 comprising works of the Bektaşi's.

Konya Mevlevi Convent
The orginal building was constructed in 1274 by the Selçuks, and was expanded and restored later by the Ottomans. It consists of a cortyard with fountain, a room for chanting the Quoran, a mausoleum, meeting room, a mosque, rooms for the dervishes, a kitchen, classroom and a hall for religious ceremonies. In the cortyard there exist the tombs of Sinan Pasha, Fatma Hatun, Hürrem Pasha and Mehmet Bey. It was converted into a museum in 1927.

Galata Mevlevi House
It was built by İskender Pasha in 1491. The first sheikh was Safayi Dede from Sinop. It was burnt down in 1765 and rebuilt. The famous Ottoman poet Sheikb Galip became its religious chief in 1791. The last Sheikb in 1925 was Ahmet Celalettin Dede. Many tombs exist in its cemetary of famous followers of the Mevlana order. It was converted into the Museum of Ottoman Literature in 1973.

HOUSE OF VIRGIN MARY

The resolutions of the council of 431 held that the Virgin Mary came to Ephesos. According to them, she came here together with Saint John, four to six years after the death of Christ. After the proclamation of Pope Paul VI in 1967, Pope John Paul II came to Ephesos and declared the House of Mary to be a place of pilgrimage for Christians. The house on the top of Bülbüldağ is believed to be the last home of the Virgin Mary. It is a world-famous place of pilgrimage. The structure is a church that dates to the seventh century, and was restored in 1951. The church was supposedly built on top of the house in which the Virgin Mary lived. The structure is cruciform, and has a domed roof. The nave and its apse are accessible from the vestibule. The House of Mary is a place of pilgrimage not only for Christians, but also for Muslims. Muslims use the room to the south, which is believed to be the bedroom of the Virgin Mary, as a prayer chapel. Translations of the Quranic suras that mention Mary are on display here. After the proclamation of Pope Paul VI in 1967, John Paul II came here in 1979 and declared the House of Mary to be a place of pilgrimage for Christians. The resolutions of the council of 431 held that the Virgin Mary came to Ephesos. According to them, she came here together with Saint John, four to six years after the death of Christ. Excavations in this area uncovered architectural components from the fırst to seventh centuries. The first major Church of Mary and the tomb of Saint John on Ayasuluk could be evidence of the resolutions of the council.

This house, where the Virgin Mary is supposed to have lived during her last days, and to have died with Johanna at her side, is situated 7 km south of the antique city of Ephesus in Izmir. The German Nun Katharina Emmerich (1774-1824) described the surroundings of the house from a dream she had. Lazarist monks in İzmir set out in 1891 to find the house based on sister Emmerich's description. They found the remains and built a chapel here. Pope John XXIII declared it a pilgrimage site in 1961.

Tombs, Vaults, Mausoleums

Mevlana Mausoleum
It is within the Mevlevi Convent at Konya. The first convent was built by Bedreddin from Tabriz in 1274. It has been expanded and restored to gain the form we have at present. The mausoleum rests of four pillars and is 25 m. high. The body of the mausoleum is observed to be in the form of a 16 foil cylindir and 16 foil conical cap. The body and cap are covered with turquoise tiles. For this reason the dome is referred to as the "Green Dome". The mausoleum contains 65 groves of various relatives and flowers of Mevlana together with himself. The pencilworks of the mausoleum are also of great valve.

Green Mausoleum
This octogonal mausoleum covered with turquoise tiles built in 1421 by architect Hacı İvaz Pasha in Bursa Inside are the graves of Mehmet I and his family. The grave of Mehmet I, the inner walls of the mausoleum and the niche are decorated with the first glazing technique of tiles of the period. The tiles were made by artist Mehmet Mecnun.

Tomb of Weeping Women
It was found in 1887 in Sayda by a peasant ploughing his field and was brought to İstanbul by Osman Hamdi Bey. It is one of the most important tombs in the world, dating back to the Hellenistic period. It is supposed to be the tomb of Saydian King Stration who died in 360 B.C. It is 2.97 m in height, 2.54 m in lenght, and 1.37 m in. wedth. The reliefs represent women weeping for the death of their King, and the funeral march. (Istanbul Archaelogical Museum).

Sacrophagus Alexander
This was found by Osman Hamdi Bey in 1887 during archaelogical digs in Sayda. Due to the reliefs representing the wars between the Machedonian King Alexander the Great and the Persians, it is known as the "Alexander Sacrophagus". It is 3.18 x 1.67 m in dimensions and 2.12 m in height. It has a triangular pediment, and a roof shaped lid. (İstanbul Archaeological Museum)

Bridges, Water Arches, Cisterns, Reservoirs

Yerebatan Palace (Cistern)
It was built by Emperor Constantinus I during the 4th century and was restored and extended by Justinianus in the 6th century. The water came from the Belgrad forest via the Cebeciköy arch. It is 141 m long and 73 m wide. It has 336 pillars 5 m apart and 8 m high.

Malabadi Bridge
This bridge near Silvan-Diyarbakır over the Batman river was built in 1147 during the Artuk period by Timurtash bin Ilgazi bin Artuk. It is 150 m long and 7 m wide, 19 m in height. It was built using coloured stones and has been restored over the years and has reached our present times.

Valencius (Bozdoğan)
Aquaduct is In Saraçhane in Istanbul, its constuction was commenced during the reign of Constantinus I (306-337) and was completed by Emperor Valencius in 378. It brought drinking water from Alibeyköy to the city. It consists of two arches. It used to be 1 km long, however, only a 800 m. section has survived to present times.

Fountains, Pools

Sultanahmet Square Fountain
It is in the square in front of the main gate to Topkapı Palace. It was built during 1728-1729 by Ahmet III, and is among the important works of art of the "Tulip Period" of the Ottoman Era. It is based on a 10 x 10 m. plan with spouts on each of its faces and corners. It is famous for its architecture and decorations.

Ahmet III Library Fountain
This fountain is in front of the Ahmet III Library the third courtyard of Topkapı Palace. It was built by Ahmet III in 1719